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  • Founded Date May 17, 2009
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Expert System Industry In China

The synthetic intelligence market in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and technology as the nation’s primary productive force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and experienced significant challenges due to lack of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind many Western nations in regards to AI development. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had gotten greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has progressively developed a national agenda for artificial intelligence development and became one of the leading nations in expert system research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” including fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI advancement has actually significantly impacted Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top markets that would be the most affected by additional AI deployment.

The private sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous elements as there are couple of current existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first national law dealing with AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade constraints intended to restrict China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and advancement did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was tough so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further offering government funds for research study jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s national innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has even more broadened its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study tasks has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy concern for the development of synthetic intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, artificial intelligence was also pointed out in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable milestone in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the development of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a tactical innovation that has actually become a “focus of global competitors”. [14]:2 The document urged considerable investment in a number of tactical locations related to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is an essential component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”synthetic intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year witnessed the introduction of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council specified the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, in addition to public and personal financial investments. [14] Some of the mentioned inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI strategy consist of the potential of artificial intelligence for commercial change, better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the introduction of big language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively released the policies worrying deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specs for information collection and design training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to develop AI policy dialogue with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI safety dangers, including abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors produced with generative synthetic intelligence to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which plans to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it presented a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The fourth and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be important to the future of worldwide military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its location as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the advancement of artificial intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to blend state preparation and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market defenses, producing asymmetric advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a leading research study priority and ranks AI first amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese government aims to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing primarily concentrated on advanced and applied research study. [38] The government funding likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the personal sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is enormously investing in all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing cars are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on establishing China’s high-tech industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and regional commercial advancement and community. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate cooperation, public-private partnerships, and worldwide partnerships and projects with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had actually finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing obligations on AI companies, the overall approach to its regulation is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population produces a massive amount of accessible information for companies and scientists, which provides an important benefit in the race of big information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, generating substantial quantities of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is one of the most widely utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its residents assists further train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to further AI R&D however likewise uses incredible economic prospective attracting both worldwide and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the information and communication technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft steps specifying that tech business will be obliged to guarantee AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, companies bear legal duty for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced material may not “prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language design to the public, business must seek approval from the CAC to license that the design declines to answer particular questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that maintains libraries including training information sets commonly utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local companies with training information that CCP leaders consider allowable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually alerted that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to address concerns relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most companies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-lasting economic growth. In the past, standard markets in China have actually battled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional expenses are expected to lower while a boost in performance creates profits growth. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of costs and lack of effectively trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI advancement since of rising needs for laborers with sophisticated abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development might be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial development is concentrated in coastal areas rather than inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to develop a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a particular focus on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing vehicles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report released afterwards revealed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and damaging a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is largely affected by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense innovation and fears of a broadening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China intends to use AI for exploiting big troves of intelligence, producing a common operating image, and speeding up battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which looks for to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software application, decision assistance, software application, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist between Chinese business business, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of directing AI development top priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese federal government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business companies and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of data labeling to produce the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily relevant AI applications, possibly granting it lawful access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign investments, “particularly those from rival or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model use restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly considering that China deals with challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the very same proportion of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China especially want to deal with military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently developed the very first children’s educational program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the very first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user protection, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain in full decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts requiring essential requirements in long-term research and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and numerous national federal governments have actually established legislation addressing information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure classifying all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are required to classify their data into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and manage data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements connected to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI evaluates the evidence presented and uses pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to encourage private tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to global AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained causes of China’s anxiety towards securing a global technological dominance – China missed out on both commercial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take benefit of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government authorities demonstrated remarkably eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive massive necessary change.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unparalleled resources and enormous untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research culture. Instead of stress over China’s progress, it would be sensible for Western countries to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has stunted the advancement of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI produces obstacles for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher injustice of employees and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing higher capital build-up and political power in fewer financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the primary responsible actor in the location of generative AI (creating new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI dangers escalating military competition between nations which the impact of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have occurred. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is generally optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed across 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI surpass the dangers, the highest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% agreed or strongly concurred that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% thought it must be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly used AI facial acknowledgment has raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to discover Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a government intentionally utilizing synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, particularly by regional municipal cops departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.