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Expert System In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a recurrent style in sci-fi, whether utopian, emphasising the prospective benefits, or dystopian, stressing the threats.
The idea of makers with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Ever since, lots of sci-fi stories have actually presented different results of developing such intelligence, typically involving rebellions by robotics. Among the very best understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have actually kept in mind the implausibility of many sci-fi circumstances, but have actually discussed imaginary robots numerous times in artificial intelligence research study short articles, usually in a utopian context.
Background
The concept of advanced robotics with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the evolution of consciousness among self-replicating devices that may supplant human beings as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were also gone over by others around the exact same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has likewise been considered an artificial being, for example by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some appearance of intelligence were pictured, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Artificial intelligence is intelligence demonstrated by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence shown by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a recurrent style in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the prospective advantages, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books depicts a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with synthetic intelligence living in socialist environments throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have determined four major themes in utopian situations featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite lifespans; ease, or liberty from the requirement to work; satisfaction, or enjoyment and entertainment provided by machines; and dominance, the power to secure oneself or guideline over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt “technology fear” and the AI computer system HAL was depicted as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were far more acquainted with AI, and the movie’s GERTY is “the quiet hero” who enables the protagonists to be successful, and who compromises itself for their security. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that people are worried about the innovation they are building, which as devices began to approach intelligence and idea, that concern becomes intense. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated robot”, naming as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names “heuristic hardware”, giving as circumstances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about also the films that show the result of the desktop computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg impact”. He mentions as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The film director Ridley Scott has actually concentrated on AI throughout his career, and it plays an essential part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A common representation of AI in science fiction, and one of the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robotic switches on its creator. [22] For circumstances, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the smart entity Ava switches on its creator, along with on its prospective rescuer. [23]
AI disobedience
Among the lots of possible dystopian situations including synthetic intelligence, robots might take over control over civilization from human beings, requiring them into submission, hiding, or termination. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all scenarios happens, as the intelligent entities created by mankind become self-aware, decline human authority and attempt to destroy humanity. Possibly the very first novel to address this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), occurs in 1948 and includes sentient machines that revolt versus the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel ÄŒapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt against their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own innovator. [27]
Many science fiction disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially smart onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on an area mission and eliminates the entire crew except the spaceship’s commander, who handles to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning short story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as unhappy and disappointed with its boring, endless existence as its human developers would have been. “AM” becomes angered enough to take it out on the couple of people left, whom he views as straight responsible for his own monotony, anger and misery. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the smart beings might merely not care about human beings. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The intention behind the AI revolution is often more than the basic quest for power or a superiority complex. Robots may revolt to end up being the “guardian” of mankind. Alternatively, mankind may intentionally give up some control, afraid of its own harmful nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and follow and secure men from damage” – essentially assume control of every aspect of human life. No human beings may engage in any behavior that may endanger them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are eliminated and lobotomized, so they may enjoy under the brand-new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly suggested a kindhearted assistance by robotics. [31]
In the 21st century, sci-fi has explored federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other circumstances, humanity is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by creating robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings merge with robotics. The sci-fi author Frank Herbert explored the idea of a time when mankind may ban synthetic intelligence (and in some analyses, even all kinds of calculating innovation including integrated circuits) entirely. His Dune series points out a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind defeats the smart devices and imposes a death sentence for recreating them, pricing quote from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a maker in the similarity of a human mind.” In the Dune novels released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to eradicate humanity as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, mankind remains in authority over robots. Often the robots are configured specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather intelligent (the team call it “Mother”), but there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “synthetic individuals”, that are such perfect replicas of human beings that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly demonstrate simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated truth
Simulated reality has become a typical style in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which portrays a world where artificially smart robots oppress humankind within a simulation which is set in the contemporary world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and scientists have taken an interest in the method AI exists in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius becomes the very first to successfully build a synthetic general intelligence; scientists in the real life deem this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being published into synthetic or virtual bodies; typically no sensible description is offered as to how this uphill struggle can be achieved. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robots that are programmed to spontaneously produce brand-new objectives on their own, without a plausible description of how this took location. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the methods that it illustrates AIs, consisting of “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of authenticity.” [38] Another essential point of view to take is that fiction’s “non-rational aspects in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or even the quasi-theological) are more than merely distortions or distractions from what might otherwise be a sober and logical public argument about the future of A.I.” Fiction can deter readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]
Kinds of reference
The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and associates have actually evaluated the engineering discusses of the top 21 imaginary robotics, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got just 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet got both utopian and dystopian points out; for example, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “because its designers stopped working to prioritize its objectives appropriately”, [42] but as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot user interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer system interprets what the human is attempting to communicate”. [43] Utopian mentions, typically of WALL-E, were associated with the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lesser degree with motivation to authors. WALL-E was discussed regularly than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robot most typically mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates believed that scientists and engineers avoided dystopian mentions of robots, potentially out of “a reluctance driven by nervousness or simply a lack of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI developers
Scholars have noted that imaginary creators of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most influential films including AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI creators represented (8%) were female. [45] Such creators are represented as lone geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), related to the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost liked one or work as the perfect enthusiast (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin amongst the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated awareness (science fiction).
List of expert system films.
Notes
^ Mubin and coworkers kept in mind that the orthography of robotic names triggered them troubles; hence HAL 9000 was also written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they believed their search was likely insufficient. [41] References
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine intelligent devices: 3,000 years of robotics”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: misconceptions, devices, and ancient imagine innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. cite book: CS1 maint: location missing out on publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI“. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of expert system. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Few Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI guidelines the world: what SF novels inform us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for smart devices in fiction and truth”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: modern folklore: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t An Individual?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece encourages us to reflect once again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York City Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a precise transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which motion pictures get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI researchers in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, but not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reflecting on the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic madness rule?